Historical Analysis of Bilateral and Multilateral Cooperation Agencies' Interventions in Education and Training in Burkina Faso from 1960 to 2015

: Education and training are the most essential factors in the development process of States. Indeed, beyond enabling citizens, including children, to build their own future, education and training are the basis for the sustainable and inclusive development of any society. As proof, industrialized countries have relied on these sectors to increase their human capital. Inspired by this lesson, developing countries south of the Sahara, such as Burkina Faso (formerly Upper Volta), have appropriated these tools since their independence. However, given the financial difficulties of these countries, investment in education and training has always been lower than the real needs. This is what justified recourse to official development assistance (ODA) as soon as these countries gained independence in the 1960s. In the case of Burkina Faso, many technical and financial partners have been active in ODA since its political independence on 5 August 1960. So, what is the assessment of this international financial and technical intervention in the fields of education and training? What are the political and social implications of this intervention? This reflection shows that the bi- and multilateral actors have always been numerous and diverse in Burkina Faso since 1960. It also shows that the contributions of technical and financial partners, both bilateral and multilateral, have been insufficient to meet national expectations and very often not adapted to the real needs of the population at the grassroots.


Introduction
With a surface area of 274,000 km², Burkina Faso, formerly known as Upper Volta, is a Least Developed Country (LDC). Indeed, it is ranked 182 out of 189 countries in terms of human development in 2020 [1]. The country faces enormous difficulties in implementing education and training development. Yet, education and training are powerful factors in reducing poverty and inequality. They are an essential component of public development policies in modern societies.
While the primary responsibility for the effectiveness and democratization of education and training lies with the states, the programmes and projects carried out by international development cooperation agencies help to influence national education and training policies. In 2016, the Global Monitoring Report on education stated that if the world is serious about achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in Burkina Faso, Official Development Assistance (ODA) in education and training must increase substantially [2].
This Policy Brief aims to analyze the actions of public bilateral and multilateral international cooperation agencies in the education and training in Burkina Faso and to determine what can be retained after more than 50 years of action.
From a methodological point of view, we relied on the theoretical approach of the ideal -type of development conceived by Max Weber [3]. Thus, by means of a mixed approach (qualitative and quantitative), we take stock and then analyze the policies and actions of these agencies. From a qualitative point of view, this involves a content analysis based on a review of the literature, available online and in the documentation services and archives of the ministries in charge of foreign affairs, the economy and finance, national education and vocational training, as well as an analysis of the agencies' local documentation and interview reports. The latter were individual and semi-structured interviews with 25 national and international public and private actors. At the national level, these were ten policy makers, programme and project managers, teachers and civil society actors, all in the education and training. For the cooperation agencies, 15 local representatives and managers were interviewed. The information gathered made it possible to organize the reflection around two major axes: 1. an overview of international development cooperation in the education and training, in general and in Burkina Faso; 2. analysis of the principles, objectives, strategies, policies, activities and instruments of bilateral and multilateral agencies in Burkina Faso.

International Development Cooperation: From the United Nations Charter to Official Development Assistance
International cooperation is a collaboration between two and/or more countries or institutions in a given field. It can be bilateral or multilateral, covers various sectors of activity, and uses aid as one -but not the only -instrument. Development aid refers to the set of resources made available by public and private actors in rich countries to developing countries 1 , with the aim of fostering their economic and social development and improving the living standards of their populations. It usually takes the form of grants or cash loans at preferential rates and/or cancellation of public debt [4]. When the donor is a country or a public entity, it is called ODA, but it can also be corporations, NGOs and foundations. International development cooperation can be studied from the adoption of the United Nations Charter in 1945, and then with reference to the evolution of the global context of economic and social development, which initially generated international solidarity and evolved towards the accompaniment of a development that was necessary because it was profitable [5]. But development aid is also based on the will of developed countries to promote the full development of developing countries by bringing them into the global economic system. 1 The World Bank uses the term LDC (Developing Country) In this sense, the intervention of international agencies is closely linked to the notion of 'development'. This concept appeared in the 20th century and refers to "a high standard of living and access to well-being for all" [6], as well as to the quantitative increase in a country's wealth. Thus, from the inter-war period , what would later be called 'development' took on a more political and social connotation. The League of Nations Pact of 28 June 1919 gave the 'developed' countries the task of supporting those that were less developed. Moreover, this pact took on a socio-economic dimension after the 1929 crisis, when the major powers undertook to improve the living conditions of poor countries [6]. At the end of the Second World War, the Western countries signed the Bretton Woods agreements, creating the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) in 1944, which later became part of the World Bank Group with the International Development Association (IDA).
The starting point for development aid is the Charter of the United Nations adopted in San Francisco in June 1945, whose preamble states: "The peoples of the United Nations are determined to promote social progress and better standards of life in larger freedom". This is reflected in Article 55 of the Charter on International Economic and Social Cooperation: "With a view to creating conditions of stability and well-being which are necessary to ensure peaceful and friendly relations among nations based upon respect for the principle of equal rights and self-determination of peoples, the United Nations shall promote higher standards of living, full employment, and conditions of economic and social progress and development" [7]. This international legal instrument of fundamental human rights in prevention refers to the education and training on which economic and social progress depends. The political consecration of the concept of "development" appeared for the first time in the inaugural speech of the US President Harry S. Truman on 20 January 1949 [8].
It is in this context that the UN recommends that its members use international and specialized institutions to drive "progress". In 1960, President J. F. Kennedy asked students at the University of Michigan: "All of you who are studying medicine, would you be willing to spend time in Ghana? All of you technicians and engineers, would you be willing to devote yourselves to foreign service and spend your lives traveling the world?" [9]. Then, in 1961, he launched the Peace Corps. From 1965 onwards, some 10,000 volunteers were involved in Third World countries, where the main aim was to work towards a more appropriate integration of these countries into the market economy. For this reason, numerous trade and financial agreements have contributed since that time to the establishment of a system of international regulation of trade and exchange intended to facilitate development. In this context, the development of ODA and its evolution since the 1960s have been marked by the passage and superimposition -among others -of the notions of: Third World, Underdeveloped Countries, Developing Countries -the latter abandoned in 2016 by the World Bank with regard to economic development and Least Developed Countries (LDCs). The latter concept covers the level of per capita income, the Human Development Index (HDI) and the level of economic vulnerability of populations.
The analysis of the policies and activities of international cooperation agencies in Burkina Faso reflects this diversity of approaches.

General Framework of Bilateral and Multilateral International Cooperation in Education and Training Development in Burkina Faso
The rise of the ideals of development aid occurred at the same time as decolonization and the emergence of the concept of the Third World. The Marshall Plan, set up by the United States of America for the reconstruction of Europe devastated by the Second World War, implied for the colonizer's actions in favor of the development of the colonies.
Thus, actions in the education and training, among others, were undertaken in territories under colonial control such as Upper Volta. This included the construction of schools and training centers, as well as the training of educational and vocational staff.
"In 1947, this colony had 79 primary schools, including 20 public schools, 10 girls' schools, seven of which were private, three modern colleges and four normal schools, one of which was private. When the country gained independence in 1960, it had 354 primary schools, 130 of which were private [10].
In addition, for the benefit of the Overseas Territories (TOM) and the colonies, the French law of 30 April 1946 established the Fonds d'Investissement pour le Développement Économique et Social (FIDES) and the Caisse Centrale de la France d'Outre-Mer (CCFOM). These institutions were the framework for the expression of French cooperation policy with the colonies and the TOM. "It was through this law that the term "aid" appeared for the first time in French colonial policy, corresponding to a nonrepayable contribution" [11].
Until the territories under French colonization and trusteeship gained independence, French action in Africa was included under this law. Subsequently, it was in this context that French international cooperation was born and developed with most African countries. It is from this period onwards that the education and training has been one of the main bases of intervention for France and other bilateral and multilateral partners. Generally speaking, at the bilateral level, the first development aid initiatives in the context of post-independence Africa (1960s) were mainly the work of public agencies: the French Development Agency (AFD), the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC), the United States Agency for International Development (USAID), the Canadian International Development Cooperation Agency (CIDA), the Austrian Agency for International Development. They were followed by multilateral international cooperation organizations such as education and training, UNESCO and the World Bank.
ODA for education and training includes almost no African bilateral funding mechanisms. The only exchanges in these sectors are exchanges of experience and expertise between states. At the African multilateral level, however, the African Union (AU), the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), the West African Economic and Monetary Union (UEMOA) and the African Development Bank (AfDB) -present in Burkina Faso since 1970 -are involved in education and training. For example, the AfDB is interested in matching labor market and skills, including the economic empowerment of women and the employability of youth. It also works for the development of education in African LDCs through basic education, secondary education, higher education and vocational training.

Public Bilateral Cooperation Agencies for the Development of Education and Training in Burkina Faso
This section first discusses the national management and monitoring actors of bilateral cooperation agencies. In a second step, the principles, objectives and instruments of these actors in the development of education and training will be analyzed.

National Bilateral Cooperation Partners
From a technical and administrative point of view, the direct collaborators of bilateral cooperation agencies are the ministries in charge of foreign affairs and cooperation; economy, finance and development; and the three ministries in charge of education, training and research.
In the Ministry of Economy, Finance and Development (MINEFID), collaboration is the responsibility of the Directorate General for Cooperation (DG-COOP). This structure acts as a gateway for all development agencies and organization's wishing to operate in the country. This directorate monitors and controls the agencies. It is also responsible for the general and permanent coordination of ODA, which is the responsibility of the government. DGCOOP aims to: "Organize negotiations within the framework of economic, technical and financial cooperation relations, at the bilateral and multilateral level, contributing to the economic and social development of Burkina Faso" [12].
At the level of the Ministry in charge of National Education and Literacy (MENA), Youth, Training and Professional Integration (MJFIP) and Higher Education, Scientific Research and Innovation (MESRSI), specialized structures are in charge of cooperation and external relations (inter-ministerial, inter-institutional). The mission of these directorates is to study and develop cooperation instruments (agreements, conventions). To this end, the Partnership Framework of Technical and Financial Partners (TFPs) for Basic education, created in 2007, is placed under the supervision of the Ministry of Education.
Most ODA for education and training comes through cooperation agreements, technical assistance and scholarships. The most active bilateral agencies in Burkina Faso in 2017 were 2 Canada, Denmark, the United States of America, France, Japan, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Switzerland, Austria and Taiwan. The aim here is to analyze the principles and objectives of these agencies, and then to highlight the activities they have carried out and the strategies for their implementation.

French Cooperation
In view of its colonial past 3 , France has been and still is one of Burkina Faso's almost unavoidable partners. The collaboration can be broken down into 3 sequences starting in the 1960s.
From 1960 until the 1980s, the logic of intervention was based on the transfer of an educational model modelled on the French model. This resulted in the creation of primary schools, colleges and lycées organized and operating on the French model.
"As far as Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) is concerned, this period was marked by the valorization of academic training over vocational training, resulting in the importance given to diplomas, little consideration of non-baccalaureate holders and little recognition of the training and status of teachers in education (general and technical)" [13].
Regarding the training of TVET trainers, the French ODA has supported teaching and training schemes with the provision of human and material resources. Indeed, the Directorate of Cultural and Technical Cooperation (DCCT) of the Ministry of Cooperation was responsible for ensuring the implementation of cultural cooperation agreements in terms of education. With credits made available to it by the Fonds d'Aide et de Coopération (FAC), it took part in the construction and running costs of schools and also facilitated the pursuit of studies or internships for nationals of African and Malagasy countries.
" One of the priority objectives of the DCCT was to contribute to making French teaching staff available, by requesting their secondment to the Burkina Faso Ministry of Education if they were civil servants, or by recruiting them directly if they were not" [14].
At the end of the 1980s, this intervention logic was called into question, as it was largely unsuited to African realities, even though it allowed the establishment of infrastructures such as the Lycée Saint Exupéry (1975) in Ouagadougou and the École Française André Malraux (1973) in Bobo-Dioulasso. Two (02) institutes were also built in the latter two (02) cities. These models of construction, organization and operation were to inspire state and private projects in the school, university and vocational training fields.
Since 1990, French development aid policy has been consistent with that of the international community, organized around the goal of Education for All in the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), as well as the principles of the Paris Declaration on aid effectiveness (OECD, 2005) [15]. Since then, like other countries, France has had to review its development aid policy and therefore also its instruments in this area. Thus, the Inter-ministerial Committee for International Cooperation and Development (CICID) was set up in April 2005 and follows the new orientations of international development aid policy, mainly those of the OECD.
Thus, France refers to Global Budget Support (GBS) as a mode of intervention for its ODA. It is an instrument clearly distinct from traditional project/programme aid, which insists on the principles of ownership, harmonization, coordination and alignment of aid, is accompanied by good governance criteria and requires a national development strategy. The results are reviewed periodically in a policy dialogue between the donor countries and the country concerned. In principle, several advantages are highlighted. Firstly, procedures are simplified: the 'recipient' country no longer has to comply with the numerous requirements, habits, priorities and evaluation methods of the donor countries. In addition, GBS is managed by a cartel of donor countries, within the framework of a joint negotiation [16].
From 1990 to 2015, France's ODA commitment to the education and training represents between 260 and 305 million euros [17]. The Partnership Framework between Burkina Faso and AFD, signed in 2013, sets out the priority areas of cooperation, which are sustainable development (energy, drinking water, sanitation) and human development (education, health, family planning), agriculture and food security (land tenure, food security, fight against malnutrition), governance (decentralization, resource mobilization) and cultural cooperation (promotion of cultural exchanges).
The Cooperation and Cultural Action Service (SCAC) of the French Embassy grants 2nd and 3rd cycle scholarships to Burkinabe students wishing to pursue their academic studies, or scholarships for training leading to a diploma abroad, particularly in France, under certain conditions of grades and age.
Today, AFD is still a key partner of the education and training. Between 2000 and 2016, financing amounted to more than 70 million euros, 80% of which was for basic education and training. Thus, as Emmanuel Macron stressed during his visit to Ouagadougou in December 2017, education and training will be the top priority of the new partnership between the two countries [18]. In this framework, AFD aims to support universal primary education, vocational training, improve the quality of the education system and eliminate illiteracy by 2021.

Swiss Cooperation
Switzerland's intervention, implemented by the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC) of the Federal Department of Foreign Affairs (FDFA), dates back to 1964 and takes the form of cooperation agreements. At first, these were mainly directed towards the promotion of crafts, informal entrepreneurship and small trades. Since the Jomtien Conference on Education for All (1990), the intervention logic has been increasingly oriented towards basic education and vocational training. Unlike AFD, SDC also practices Sector Budget Support but favors GBS. Since 2005, Switzerland's ODA also includes bilateral debt forgiveness at face value. However, it must be recognized that in practice, this mode of financing does not always facilitate the implementation of direct and effective actions in favor of the recipients. Debt forgiveness in the form of ODA reduces the country's external debt but has little impact on direct financing of specific sectors.
The purpose of Swiss aid to the education and training worldwide is: "To contribute to ensuring that people in partner countries, especially those who suffer most from poverty in its various forms (cultural, social, political and economic), can exercise their right to education, including vocational training and thereby improve their well-being and livelihoods" [19].
SDC's main objective has long been to support the transformation and sustainable improvement of the education system so that it better responds to the rights and aspirations of people, especially the poorest, and contributes, in conjunction with other institutions, to socio-economic development in general and self-employment in particular.
According to the Swiss cooperation strategy document (2017-2020) for Burkina Faso, strengthening action in the field of basic education and vocational training is now one of the priorities in this country. In 2016, Switzerland's ODA to the education and training amounted to approximately EUR 97 million, including bilateral co-operation and general budget support [20]. SDC works in partnership with national education and training civil society actors. In basic education, bilingual schools and numerous non-formal basic education centers (CEBNF) under the responsibility of the state have been set up in collaboration with national partners, in addition to support for initial and in-service language training for teachers -especially in non-formal education. For vocational training, the SDC has opted for dual training of learners. At this level, national associations and NGOs receive contributions for the implementation of their activities.
It should be noted that Switzerland's intervention logic in the education and training sectors considers education as a fundamental right of citizens. Thus, while Switzerland welcomes MDG 4 on quality education and lifelong learning, it believes that the interpretation of the sub-goals and indicators does not cover the main elements of the right to education. These sub-goals focus only on the formal education system and restrict quality to learning outcomes and measured results.

Canadian Cooperation
In General Co-operation Agreement sets out the legal framework for Canadian assistance. This aid has grown, covering various development sectors (agriculture, food, infrastructure, etc.).
Over the past two decades, Canada has chosen to support the country's development strategy by focusing on poverty reduction and capacity development. The 2001-2015 bilateral aid programme, some components of which are still being implemented, had the general aim of contributing to poverty reduction through social development (education and health), economic growth, decentralization and good governance. With a strong focus on human resource development, the programme was intended to support people's initiatives in their search for solutions, and in the implementation of means to improve the living conditions of the most vulnerable groups.
During the bilateral consultations in January 2001 to prepare the 2001-2015 programme, the main lines of action proposed for this programme concerned formal and nonformal basic education and the development of local economies. According to the current head of CIDA, the objectives underlying Canada's intervention in education and training are mainly related to the fight against educational disparities, particularly those related to gender. In fact, in a country where the school enrolment rate remains one of the lowest in the world, parents are still forced to choose between a girl and a boy. Therefore, in order to alleviate these problems and to reach other areas such as literacy, nonformal education and vocational training, CIDA regularly supports projects aimed at improving the quality of education and increasing school enrolment, 8 million in 2011 [21], CIDA is increasingly involved in the construction of infrastructure and school canteens, in-service teacher training and support for the education of children of parents in difficulty.
Among other projects, the one implemented (2009-2018) by the Société de Formation et de Gestion (SOFEG) of Montreal in partnership with Ministry of Education, has a budget of 6.2 million Euros [22] to provide specialized advice and technical support on all aspects of education and training. Working with regional representatives of the Ministry, the project funds provincial libraries and school-based initiatives to increase the enrolment of girls and boys. CIDA also supports the government in building better primary and secondary schools for girls and boys: between 1990 and 2016, 12 primary schools and 5 CEGs were built [23].
In 2015, a review made recommendations, most of which focused on the closer involvement of national actors in the various phases of the programme and projects, and suggested that national expertise be more widely used. For one CIDA staff member, this means working to increase the state's capacity to deliver credible and effective social programmes, to implement effective decentralization and to strengthen civil society actors to enable them to participate fully and responsibly in their own development.

Japanese Cooperation
Japan acts through the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA). The exchange of Service Notes for Japanese Overseas Cooperation Volunteers (JOCV) was carried out in 1998 and the first three volunteers arrived in 2000. In April 2006, the JOCV Office became the JICA Office. The cooperation involves sending volunteers and experts in basic education, agriculture, environment, health and drinking water and sanitation [24]. Thus, each year, four groups of young volunteers carry out a two-year stay in public services including FE.
More broadly, Japan has supported and continues to support: i PROSPECT has resulted in the development of six tools to support and strengthen the pre-service teacher training process: ENEP leaver profile, Annual Course Planning Guide, Field Placement Workbook, Teacher Training School Guide, Tests to assess student teachers' competencies, and DVD on pre-service training [25]. It is planned that in 2018 these tools, already tested and appreciated by stakeholders in the National Primary Teachers' Schools (ENEP) and pilot schools, will be stabilized and disseminated for nationwide use. The project supports teachers with specific tools.

Danish Cooperation
The Kingdom of Denmark has been involved in development assistance initiatives since the 1950s through the United Nations system. Bilateral development cooperation started in 1973, but it was not until 1993 that Burkina Faso was granted the title of "priority country". This cooperation was marked by the testing of different approaches, followed by the establishment of a representation of the Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA). The education and training have been part of the programme since 2004.
"In 2016, about 35% of bilateral aid was earmarked for education and training for mostly rural populations. This agency's contribution to education and training is down from 2011 when it was 40% (DANIDA, 2015). Indeed, it was estimated in 2016 at 16 million Euros and represented 15% of the total ODA contribution to education and training" [12].
DANIDA's objectives focus on a limited number of partner countries and priority sectors. The Agency aims to make developing countries self-reliant, democratic and improve their tax systems so that revenues contribute to financing development. DANIDA works to advance global development through people's access to new technologies and innovation. In particular, it works to address gender inequality, which is both an individual problem and an obstacle to economic growth that contributes to high population growth [26].
Since April 2016, Denmark and Burkina Faso have signed a cooperation protocol for the implementation of a Country Programme 2016-2020. Thus, over the period 2016-2020, the financial envelope amounts to 103 million Euros. The Programme focuses on, among other things, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, strengthening democracy and human rights, and equal participation of men and women in the development process, as presented in Denmark's strategy and policy for development and humanitarian action in the document entitled "The World 2030" [27].

Luxembourg Cooperation
The Grand Duchy of Luxembourg's cooperation is implemented by LUXDEV. A new Indicative Programme (CIP III) was adopted at the end of 2016 to cover the period 2017-2021. This programme is nested and implemented simultaneously with the one signed in 2013 and covering the period 2013-2018, The main axes of intervention are education: "Basic education and literacy; vocational and technical education; support to the forestry sector; livestock and recovery of pastoral resources; traditional medicine and pharmacopoeia; information and communication technologies; the fight against poverty through support to the national programme of multifunctional platforms" [28].
LUXDEV participates in national and/or bilateral sectoral consultation frameworks and contributes to the European Union's joint programming effort (EU 4 ). At the end of the 2nd Indicative Programme which ended in 2016, the distribution of disbursements by sector was very favorable to the education and training with 71% of the agency's budgets [29]. This is confirmed in the 2017 indicative programme where three out of five projects are related to the education and training: i) Project BKF/022 (December 2013 -December 2016) 15 million projects in support of the Basic Education Strategic Development Programme 2012-2021 (BESDP) have two components [28]. First, a contribution to the Compte Spécial d'Affection du Trésor / Fonds de Soutien au Développement de l'Education de Base (CAST-FSDEB) in which AFD, Canada, Denmark, Luxembourg, Switzerland and UNICEF as well as the Global Partnership for Education (GPE) are associated. Support to Ministry of Education is the second component and includes the provision of a facilitator attached to the Ministry of Education General Secretariat who coordinates the implementation of the PSRC. In addition to a facilitating role, the programme provides specific support for literacy and non-formal education, as well as for governance and decentralization of education.
ii) Project BKF/018 -July 2012 -July 2017 This project consists of supporting the national policy in the implementation of its strategy and is implemented jointly with AFD and the Austrian-Burkinabè Cooperation. The programme mainly strengthened the capacities of national institutions related to vocational training through technical assistance in the following areas: management, human resources, curriculum development at Ministry of Education and MJFIP. In addition, a common fund allows the financing of numerous activities and mainly supports the Fonds d'Appui à la Formation Professionnelle et à l'Apprentissage which is the reducation and trainingerence tool for the government in this field.
iii) Project BKF/021 -April 2017 -June 2019 This project supports the (national) Programme d'Appui au Renforcement des Infrastructures de Communication, of which the Agence Nationale de Promotion des TIC is the management unit and implementing agency. The results of the project should enable a better deployment of the national education management system (primary school exam data, textbooks and school equipment, education statistics data) in 202 Ministry of Education buildings.

Cooperation of the United States of America
The United States Agency for International Development (USAID) is an independent agency of the US government responsible for economic development and humanitarian assistance around the world. The agency works under the supervision of the President, the State Department and the National Security Council. With its origins in the Marshall Plan for aid to Europe after World War II, USAID was established on November 3, 1961 by U.S. President J. F. Kennedy. Its mission is to help reduce poverty, promote democracy and economic growth, relieve victims of natural disasters and prevent conflict. The agency has invested billions of Euros worldwide in a wide variety of projects since 1961 to address development constraints in recipient countries. USAID worked in Burkina Faso as part of the Millennium Challenge Corporation-funded program to increase the number of primary and kindergarten students from 2005 to 2013. Its actions contributed to the construction of 132 school complexes, each comprising six classrooms, six teachers' houses and a kindergarten, in the ten provinces of the country where girls' access to and retention in school were the lowest in the country.
USAID's intervention is carried out through the Peace Corps which entered Burkina Faso in 1967. It was interrupted in 1987 due to political changes in the country, but the government requested the reinstatement of the programme in 1995. Today, about 120 volunteers arrive each year. They work in education, health and economic development. The USA runs an education programme, linked to the PSDEB, which has three goals: 1. to improve the success rate of students; 2. to improve pre-school education techniques and gender sensitivity; 3. to improve the involvement of the educational community in the life of the school. In addition to general education, volunteers support primary and post-primary students with extra-curricular activities such as tutoring, clubs and camps to promote youth development, as well as actions and training to promote equity, gender and non-violence in schools. Their contribution to the development of the education system in general and basic education in particular is not officially reported and known to national education and training statistics.

Austrian Development Cooperation
Since 1967, the Austrian Development Agency (ADA) has been working to contribute to the economic development of this country by focusing on technical education and vocational training. Burkina Faso was chosen as a privileged partner of ADA in 1993. This decision was followed in 1996 by the creation of a coordination office in Ouagadougou. Since 2002 the Office has been developing its strategies around the Partial Vocational Training Programme, which includes technical education and vocational training, basic education and non-formal vocational training [30]. This is education and training in the financing of the Bruno Buchwieser Centre, the College for Women's Technical Education in Ouagadougou and the Vocational High School in Bobo Dioulasso. In addition, training activities are continuously offered to artisanal and agricultural producers.
Our interviews with national and international actors in international cooperation show that Austrian cooperation is recognized as a quality leader in the vocational training subsector, mainly in the technical and logistical fields.

Financial Contribution of the Main Bilateral Partners
In 2016, the 5 main bilateral donors for funding Education and training are Canada, France, Japan, the Netherlands and Taiwan. Their contributions are presented in the graph below: The 5 countries concerned alone provide 53, % of ODA to this sector. France and the Netherlands have been very consistent in their contributions since the country's independence. Donors such as Japan and Luxembourg are the most consistent in financing basic education (schooling and literacy). Thus, in 2006, Japan's contribution already amounted to 7 million Euros and that of Luxembourg to 1 million Euros [31].
It should be noted that some bilateral donors also participate in the financing of multilateral donors who act as intermediaries between the beneficiaries and the donor for this purpose.

Bilateral Cooperation from Africa
Burkina Faso has established bilateral cooperation agreements with many African countries that provide support in the education and training. These are offers of scholarships by friendly countries, mainly from the Maghreb, for initial and continuing vocational education and training of young people, but also for training of trainers. In 2015, there were 22 scholarships for initial training of young people in Algeria, 15 scholarships for initial training of young people in Tunisia; 10 scholarships for initial training of young people and 10 scholarships for in-service training of trainers and management staff of the vocational training system in Morocco [32]. Cooperation with Maghreb countries is becoming increasingly strong. This is the case of Morocco, with which the partnership began in 2006 and has been in the field of vocational training since 2015 with the Office de la formation professional et de la promotion du travail. With a view to increasing and improving training opportunities, cooperation with Côte d'Ivoire (Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation) and Ghana is currently being studied.

National actors in the Management and Monitoring of Multilateral Cooperation Agencies
Internally, unlike bilateral cooperation agencies, the monitoring of multilateral cooperation is the work of a larger number of actors.
The actions of the agencies are largely coordinated by the Ministry in charge of the economy, finance and development. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Cooperation and Burkinabe Abroad (MAECBE) plays a watchdog role, as well as monitoring the compliance and effective existence of multilateral agencies. At the request of the Ministry in charge of public liberties, it gives its technical opinion on the actual existence of multilateral cooperation agencies wishing to set up in Burkina Faso by referring to the latter's diplomatic representation in the country of origin. It is after this a priori control that the Ministry in charge of public liberties issues an authorization to operate. In turn, each ministerial organization involved in the education and training has a specialized structure for external relations and cooperation. The latter serves as a bridge between the organization and the three ministries mentioned above.

Principles, Objectives, Strategies, Policies, Activities and Instruments of Multilateral Cooperation Agencies
These agencies are specialized agencies of the United Nations such as UNESCO, WFP and programmes and funds such as UNDP, UNICEF, supporting the education and training among other sectors. The World Bank Group institutions (IBRD and IDA) also provide support to the education and training in the form of loans, grants and subsidies. The Islamic Development Bank (IDB) joined in 2010. On the ground, the work of these agencies is in line with Axis II of the Strategy for Accelerated Growth and Sustainable Development (SCADD) and the implementation of the National Economic and Social Development Plan (PNDES), which aim to strengthen human capital and promote social protection. 601 million out of a total ODA of 95 billion euros, i.e. 5.2% of the latter. From 2000 to 2015, the top five multilateral donors' contributions to basic education were. The largest share of ODA allocated to education and training was recorded in 2013 with a share of €54.77 billion, of which €27.51 billion went to the International Development Agency (IDA) in the form of loans.
Much of this funding was acquired under the Post Primary Education Development Programme (PDEPP) adopted in 1994. Indeed, following the request of the Burkinabe government, the World Bank provided a credit of 29 million Euros (1997)(1998)(1999)(2000)(2001)(2002)(2003)(2004) with the objectives of "supporting the plan through the promotion of a profitable and equitable use of resources allocated to education and an improvement in the accessibility and quality of education" [33]. This project aims to improve the quality of education in post-primary and secondary education.
In this context and in order to accelerate the development of basic education, the Islamic Development Bank has provided financial support for the implementation of phase IV of the PDDEB. This phase began in 2007 and is part of a context that includes the revision of curricula, the operationalization of the basic education continuum, the adoption of the Law on the Orientation of Education, the integral communalization as well as the main national and international commitments made by the government in the field of education. The project, developed in a context marked by the completion of the PDDEB, is a logical continuation of the three previous phases that were implemented between 1990 and 2011, and which aimed to increase the supply of education, improve the quality of basic education and improve the management of the system [34].
In Burkina Faso, the WFP began intervening in the field of education in 2004. It focuses specifically on areas with high rates of food insecurity and malnutrition and low literacy rates, specifically in the Sahel, Centre-North and East regions. This action encourages both schooling and student attendance. In this regard, a 2008 World Bank evaluation of the WFP programme in the Sahel region of Burkina Faso concluded that school lunches and take-home rations for girls had increased the female enrolment rate by 6 per cent [35].
UNDP is active in financing frameworks for dialogue and fundraising. To this end, it has participated in the financing of reflection meetings on education in Burkina Faso: the holding of the States of Education (1994), the National Education Conferences (2002) and the drafting and finalization of the Education Orientation Law.
As for UNICEF, it has been active in education and training since the country's independence. Since the 1970s, its actions have been directed mainly towards pre-school and girls' schooling. Between 1979 and 1984, it supported the Burkinabe government in experimenting with preschool in rural areas. This experience served as a springboard for the development of pre-school in general, and its experimentation in rural areas in particular. UNDP is active in financing frameworks for dialogue and fundraising. To this end, it has participated in the financing of reflection meetings on education in Burkina Faso: the holding of the States of Education (1994), the National Education Conferences (2002) and the drafting and finalization of the Education Orientation Law.

Role of Other International and National Non-state Agencies
In recent years, the information available to Ministry of Education also concerns donors of another nature such as NGOs, CSOs, development associations. The latter have contributed to basic education and vocational training for a total amount of 19.81 million Euros for 2011, 17 million Euros in 2012 and 12.25 million Euros for 2015 [36]. The involvement of international actors in the development of basic education is evidence of a national desire to diversify funding sources. However, many requirements sometimes accompany ODA. The holding of inclusive, transparent and fair elections; the participation of civil society in political and economic life; the institutionalization of a democratic culture and the strengthening of the rule of law as well as the improvement of budgetary policy and public finance management are now the main demands of international cooperation actors, most often reflecting the political pressure exerted at the level of the countries involved in this cooperation.

Conclusion
Education and training are priority sectors in Burkina Faso, constantly marked by enormous financing needs. However, given the lack of its own resources, the state has relied since independence in 1960 on technical and financial partners for the implementation of its public policies on education and training -more or less influenced by the policies and funding of these bilateral and multilateral partners operating through their development cooperation agencies. However, if the latter stand out for the importance of their contributions, it is clear that some national actorsnotably trade unions in the Education and training sectornote the insufficiencies or even the undesirable effects of these partners' contributions.
An analysis of the actions of cooperation agencies, after more than 50 years of presence, reveals that they essentially reflect the policies of their country of origin in the field of Education and training. The level of contribution of these agencies therefore depends largely on the state of the cooperation relationship between two states and above all on the ideological and political orientations of the donors. In contrast, the contribution of multilateral international cooperation agencies focuses mainly on the respect of principles related to political and financial governance and democracy in the recipient country. In practice, the main difficulty lies in the type of aid granted. When it is sectoral, it benefits the Education and training. But when aid is budgetary, it is beyond the control of the implementing actors of the Education and training.
In addition, beyond the "traditional" bilateral and multilateral partners, the scope of the agencies representing them has seen the emergence of African and South-East Asian agencies which also contribute to the development of the Education and training.
Finally, from the appeal to the international community at the Education for All Conference (Jomtien, 1990) to the MDGs (2015-2030), several sectors of Education and training have seen the development of new actors such as development associations and non-governmental organizations.