Exploring Teacher Quality and Effective Teaching of Social Studies in Junior High Schools in Ghana

: Variances in various definitions support the combined differences in ways of measuring teachers’ quality and teaching effectiveness, can even yield inconsistent findings of educational proficiency. The purpose of this study was to explore teacher quality and effective teaching of Social Studies in junior high schools in Ghana. The target population was 225 teachers. However, sample size was 142 teachers which was sampled through proportionate stratified sampling procedure. The study employed a descriptive survey design


Introduction
Several studies have attested that some teachers subsidise more to their students' academic progress than other teachers. The studies have not been effective at identifying the explicit teacher qualities, features, and practices that are most possible to ensure active and efficient teaching and learning of Social Studies at the basic schools [6,7,9]. Regrettably, this is just the evidence that educational policymakers would be needing most. Most people believe that good and active teaching is crucial; henceforth a quality teacher is a necessity. This deficiency of decisiveness does not automatically mean that former studies on teachers' quality and effective teaching have been carried out unwell. Globally, the overview of Social Studies was generally activated by the expedition to resolve current persistent social challenges. A critical study on the historical progress of Social Studies imparted in the United States of America (USA), and Britain has discovered that there is a prodigious influence on the people's attitudes [18]. The period countries in Africa attained liberation in the late 1950's, and 1960's; they were faced with similar challenges as the USA and Britain encountered. An earlier assertion by Adeyemi and Adeyinka [1] posited that the African nations required ways to alter the inborn schemes of education in making them additionally appropriate to the requirements of the advanced countries. For instance, in Ghana there have been several encounters that intimidate the actual face of a humanity that inhibits general growth. Social Studies was made a fundamental issue in the Ghanaian pretertiary scheme of education with the enactment of the 1987 reorganisations of education, which is, more than thirty years ago [4].
Meanwhile, it is constantly rather indeterminate if the discipline has attained or, is attaining its learning outcomes (objectives) of indoctrinating actual and efficient social conscience in the pupils mediating from the social vices cited in the immediate paragraph [3]. Education for citizens has appeared as a substantial range of early education, primary, and secondary curriculum throughout the global. Social Studies instructions are presumed to be appealing; it explains that they should be filled with actions that assist pupils to obtain the attitudes and values desired to properly function in social setting. The attainment of the purposes or general objectives of Social Studies rely on teachers' qualifications, experience, familiarity, and hands-on use of diverse methods of instruction in the classroom (teacher quality). The effectiveness of Social Studies education at the Junior High Schools level does not only depend on how well the curriculum has been planned but more prominently teachers who are the enforcers of the Social Studies education syllabus. Henceforth, they are expected to be professionally qualified in Social Studies education and willing and prepared to teach the subject effectively for the attainment of its fundamental objectives. According to Kankam [16], Social Studies education is to assist learners to build authoritative social understanding and extremely take the responsibilities of democratic citizenship since they are the basic goals of teaching Social Studies. What is disturbing is that findings and recommendations from studies that showed that pupils learn more through pupilcentred approaches are disregarded. Eshun and Mensah [12] asserted that "teaching Social Studies is stressed to be done in pupil-centred techniques and strategies" (p. 185). This would therefore make information more eloquent to pupils and help them remember it for extended periods.
Subsequently, the quality of the Social Studies teachers and the effective teaching of Social Studies at the JHS level is fundamental in the effective enactment of the Free Compulsory Universal Basic School (FCUBE) programme. Quality teaching can never be efficient without incorporating technology; Ibiam suggested that swift technical variations in the civilisation focus on most of the learned resources and information in the Social Studies classroom outdated if the teacher is not hasty-witted to cuddle lively and fashionable changes in the society.

Statement of the Problem
Teachers are recognized as perilous players when it comes to the progress of the national human resource. Conversely, it is worrying to find out that many teachers are disgruntled with their professions. Notably, there is a gap between basic schoolteachers' opportunities about enthusiasm and working conditions and the task that teachers provide. The Ghana Education Service (GES) management can ensure good productivity or good performance in their deliveries if this gap is bridged. The expectancy of teachers was enhanced when the Single Spine Pay Policy (SSPP) was implemented in 2011, yet it could not be sustained because the policy which was presented was not exactly the expected policy.
Several studies suggested that the practice of research is one of the features of a high-quality teacher who plays a role of a representative of enhancement among learners in basic schools [11]. Nevertheless, some researchers also explore how study interrelates with policy, and preparation as a matter of institutional self-motivated, which facilitates its understanding and consequence [20]. The current investigators' casual observation in some designated junior high schools in the Shama District revealed that some teachers seem to lack the appropriate qualifications for effective teaching of Social Studies.

Purpose of the Study
Using quantitative and qualitative procedures, the study aimed to explore teacher quality and effective teaching of Social Studies among 142 teachers randomly sampled in 20 Junior High Schools of the Shama District in the Western Region, Ghana. Specifically, the objectives of this study sought to: Find out Social Studies teachers' academic and professional qualifications for the teaching of the subject in junior high school in Shama District.
Investigate how Social Studies teachers' knowledge of the subject matter affects the teaching of the subject in junior high school in Shama District.

Theoretical Review
The "human capital theory as a theory of earnings is one of the main determining factors of deficiency". The theory was first developed by Becker and Mincer. They explained that individuals' decisions to invest in human capital in relation to education and training and the outline of individuals' lifetime earnings. Individuals' dissimilar levels of investment in education and training are explicated in relations of their predictable proceeds from the investment. Investments in education and training involve expenses both in the form of straight expenses (example, tuition fee), and indirect expenses (example, time and attention) during the investment period. Therefore, only those persons who would be compensated by adequately sophisticated lifetime earnings they would choose to invest. People who supposed to work less in the work market and have fewer work market opportunities, such as women or minorities, are less possible to participate in human capital. Olaniyan and Okemakinde [22] supported the former statement of the proponents of the human capital theory, and Schultz in 1971 who postulated that an educated populace is a fruitful one.
Ncube [21] used the total quality theory to analyse quality education in Zimbabwe, while Zainul-Deen [24] also incorporated the human capital theory and the modernization theory to analyse Ghana's quality educational policies. This study found the human capital theory appropriate to support and therefore forms its basis. The human capital theory asserted that progress in terms of investment in human capital should be in the development paradigm. The Human Capital theorists consider education as a system of investment in individuals enhance their economic efficiency. To the theory, the progress of any society depends on how educated its people are and how unusual resources are directed into the enhancement of their education. Considering the purpose of the study, the independent variable (teacher quality) is a result of investment which is the key concept under this theory. It is therefore prudent to hold the human capital theory in high esteem under the quest of conducting this study.

Empirical Review
Teachers' academic and professional qualification and effective teaching of Social Studies.
Fitchett and Heafner [13] conducted a study on teacher quality or quality teaching concentrating on 8th-grade of Social Studies teachers' qualified features and classroom teaching as predictors of the achievement of U.S. history. The researchers used data from the 2010 National Association of Education Progress 8th grade test of U.S. history (NAEP-US8) including 8,570 pupils and 720 teachers. The study explored the connections among outmoded indicators of teachers' quality and contending dimensions of quality teaching on pupils' history knowledge. "Findings from the study indicated that 8th-grade Social Studies teachers with academic backgrounds in history and secondary education were associated with increased use of disciplinary practices valued by the field (i.e., reading across multiple source materials, discussion, and writing in the content area) and performance-based assessment. Additionally, it was revealed that when accounting for both teacher characteristics and instructional decision-making, alternatively licensed middle grades teachers were associated with lower average student achievement on NAEP-US8. Holding other conditions constant, eighth-grade teachers with backgrounds in secondary education were associated with higher average student performance. Results further suggested that middle grades teachers who focus instruction on disciplinary practices were associated with increased student learning outcomes as measured by NAEP-US8. The researchers also established that findings from this study had potential implications for middle grades Social Studies teacher education as well as curricular and certification policies. It can be inferred from the study that; comprehensive and significant findings were revealed although the researchers considered only quantitative analysis" (p. 9-13).
On the contrary, Kanda and Kankam [15] conducted a study on "the educational background of Social Studies teachers and its effects on pupils' academic performance in public junior high schools in Mfantseman municipality". The purpose of the study was to explore the instructive contextual of teachers of Social Studies, and how it relays to pupils' academic performance in public junior high schools in Mfantseman Municipality. The researchers deployed a descriptive survey design for the study and the sample for the study was made up of 103 teachers of Social Studies in the Mfantseman Municipality. Purposive sampling technique was used to hand-pick the respondents for the study in connection to data collection. A questionnaire made up of seven items was developed and used for data collection. The outcome of the study revealed that "there was a problem associated with the teaching of Social Studies in the Municipality and the general academic performance of pupils over the last four years (2009-2012) was average. There was a weak positive relationship between the educational background of Social Studies teachers and the academic performance of their pupils in the Municipality" (p. 83-85). The study gave out an interesting finding, but caution should be taken by researchers who would like to generalize the findings. This is because the respondents were sampled from one-sided stakeholders. It can therefore be concluded by the researchers that the key findings from Kanda and Kankam [15] contradict that of the findings from the studies conducted by Darling-Hammond [10] and Fitchett and Heafner [13] who found out that teachers' qualifications have the strongest correlation with students' academic achievement henceforth effective teaching. These contradictory findings prompt further studies.
Teachers' knowledge of the subject matter and effective teaching of Social Studies.
Blazar [7] conducted a study on teachers and effects of teaching on students' academic attitudes, behaviours, and performance. The research established that teachers have considerable influences on students' academic and life-long achievement. Nevertheless, slight is acknowledged about precise extents of teaching practice that explicate these relationships or whether these effects vary between academic, and "non-cognitive" consequences. Data were drawn from instructors in four inner-city school districts with 143 teachers signifying 55% of the entire teachers. The researcher documented "the relationship between individual teachers and students' math performance, as well as their self-reported self-efficacy in math, happiness in class, and behaviour in class. Besides, the researcher estimated the relationship between domains of teaching practice captured by two observation instruments and the set of student outcomes. Finally, the researcher examined the predictive validity of teacher effect estimates on students' attitudes and behaviours amongst a subset of teachers who were randomly assigned to class rosters within schools. With this, the researcher found out that upper-elementary teachers had large effects on a range of students' attitudes and behaviours in addition to their academic performance. These teacher effect estimates had moderate to strong predictive validity. Further, student outcomes were predicted by teaching practices most proximal to these measures (e.g., between teachers' math errors and students' math achievement, and between teachers' classroom organization and students' behaviour in class). However, teachers who are effective at improving some outcomes often are not equally effective at improving others. Together, these findings lend important empirical evidence to well-established theory on the multidimensional nature of teaching and student learning and, thus, the need for policies that account for and incentivize this complexity" (p. iv). Although a comprehensive work was presented, it is rather unfortunate since the findings presented [italicized findings], sound controversial.
Similarly, Blazar and Kraft [6] conducted a study on teachers and their teaching impacts on students' attitudes and behaviours. Their study was largely based on how teachers through their teaching influences students' attainment in academic after testing despite indications that an extensive variety of attitudes and behaviours are similarly significant to their long-term achievement. The researchers posited that at the commencement of the 2010/2011 academic year, the National Centre for Teacher Effectiveness (NCTE) was involved in a three-year process of collecting data for the study. The data emanated from participants who were 310 fourth-and fifth-grade teachers (n=310) in four unspecified, average to large school districts from the East coast of the United States. The said teachers agreed to have their lessons recorded, respond to a teacher questionnaire, and aid in collecting a set of student results. The teachers were grouped inside 52 sampled schools of which an average of six teachers were selected per school. The NCTE focused on teachers' Mathematics teaching, while respondents were expert who taught all subject matter. This is imperative because it permits teachers and other stakeholders to detach the involvement of individual teachers to students' attitudes and behaviours. They further asserted that it is substantially more interesting when students are taught by several teachers. They also suggested that the observation procedures, which measured teachers' teaching during Mathematics lessons, are possibly to capture facets of their classroom exercise that are common across content areas.
The researchers found that "upper-elementary teachers had large effects on self-reported measures of students' selfefficacy in math, and happiness and behaviour in class. Students' attitudes and behaviours were predicted by teaching practices most proximal to these measures, including teachers' emotional support and classroom organization. However, teachers who were effective at improving test scores often were not equally effective at improving students' attitudes and behaviours. These findings lend empirical evidence to well-established theory on the multidimensional nature of teaching and the need to identify strategies for improving the full range of teachers' skills" (p. 146). Though it seems a comprehensive study was conducted to resolve the controversy in the findings of the study by [7], the study still gave controversial findings as to the former.

Research Design
The design that was used for this study was a descriptive survey. Leedy and Ormrod [19] stated that descriptive survey design is a form of design that can be explained as the process of gathering data to answer research objectives or test hypothesis which concerns the existing status of a phenomenon. The researchers opted for this design because it is seen as adaptable and hands-on, particularly to the investigator in assessing situations as a pre-requisite for conditions and generalizations [23].

Population and Sampling Procedures
The target population for the study comprised all JHS teachers in the Shama District. The study covered equally public and private junior high schools in the Shama District. There are 68 junior high schools of which 39 are public and 29 privates in the district and with a total population of 667 teachers. However, the accessible population was teachers from 20 junior high schools including 15 public and five private schools with a total of 225 teachers (Shama GES Directorate, EMIS, 2015).
The sample size was selected using a multi-stage sampling procedure. For convenience in data collection for the study, the 20 junior high schools (JHSs) were selected using nonprobability convenient sampling techniques including 15 public and five private JHSs. The 20 JHSs were sampled from 68 JHSs as it represents 30% of the target schools. Cohen [8] in 2003 established that it is appropriate to use 30% of the population for a study. The respondents, 142 teachers were sampled using a proportionate stratified probability sampling technique. The selection of a sample size of 142 out of a total population of 225 teachers was based on Krejcie and Morgan's [17] table for determining sample size for a finite population for easy reference.

Data Collection Instrument
The instrument that was used for collecting data for the study was questionnaire. The items on the instrument were adapted from Adjei [2]. A questionnaire was intended to collect decisive data from respondents (teachers). The questionnaire was administered to teachers in the selected junior high schools in the Shama District because the questionnaire was the most appropriate tool which could be used to collect reliable data from the respondents in which the responses involve statements of facts and concerns that were personal. The teachers' questionnaire consists of 26 items which were divided into sections A and B. Section 'A' which contains 12 items was used to seek teachers' idea on research objective one while Section 'B' which contains 14 items was used to seek teachers' idea on research objective two. The items were on a four-point Likert type scale namely, SA (strongly agree), A (agree), D (disagree), and SD (strongly disagree) for ensuring accurate representation of data on the questionnaire.
The researchers deployed the help of their lecturers and their colleagues in scrutinizing the questionnaire items to ensure both face and content validity. More so, pre-testing was done using 15 teachers in two sisters JHSs with similar characteristics of schools under study and it assisted in attaining validity as it resulted in altering then properly regulate extents of weakness about the theme under study. The instruments' reliability was ascertained after the pre-test using Cronbach's alpha analysis. Cronbach's coefficient alpha value of 0.990 was obtained for the teachers' questionnaire. According to Fraenkel, Wallen, and Hynn [14], a reliability coefficient greater than or equal to 0.60 is a reasonable signal of good internal consistency. One hundred and eighty-two questionnaires were administered instead of 142. This was because attrition of 28.17% was considered. The questionnaires were retrieved, and the return rate was 100% due to the attrition.

Data Processing and Analysis
The data to answer the research objectives 1 and 2 were analysed using descriptive statistics (mean and standard deviations). In the analysis, mean values above 2.50, ( = = 2.50) shows that majority of the respondents agreed with the statement while a mean value below 2.50 shows that majority of the respondents disagreed with the statement.

Analysis and Discussion of Research Objective 1
Find out Social Studies teachers' academic and professional qualifications for the teaching of the subject in junior high school in Shama District. From Table 1, most respondents agreed to the statement 'Professional qualification in Social Studies is required to be able to teach Social Studies effectively at JHS level' with (M=3.45, SD= .710). It is followed by most respondents who agreed to the statement 'A more qualified teacher in Social Studies is likely to achieve the objectives or aims of the subject with ease' with (M=3.38, SD= .692). Again, most respondents agreed to the statement 'A teacher with Diploma or B. Ed or M. Ed or M. Phil in Social Studies is likely to perform better by achieving Social Studies objectives' with (M=3.34, SD= .824). Following this is, most respondents agreed to the statement 'Objectives of Social Studies teaching is better achieved when the teaching is done by a professional Social Studies teachers' with (M=3.18, SD= .775). Finally, most respondents agreed to the statement 'Specialization in Social Studies should not be the only requirement for effective teaching of Social Studies' with (M=2.67, SD= .936).
The table further shows that most respondents disagreed with the statement 'Professional qualification in Social Studies is absolute of no use to the achievement of Social Studies objectives' with (M=2.01, SD= .859). Following this, most respondents disagreed with the statement 'To be employed to teach Social Studies effectively does not call for any professional qualification in Social Studies' with (M=2.05, SD= .933). Also, most respondents disagreed with the statement 'One does not need to qualify Social Studies to be able to teach Social Studies effectively' (M=2.08, SD= .863). From Table 1, it can be noticed that most teachers in the Shama district believe that teachers' academic and professional qualifications positively influence the teaching of Social Studies in junior high schools. The findings confirm study findings from Fitchett and Heafner [13] who found out that "eighth-grade Social Studies teachers with academic backgrounds in history and secondary education were associated with increased use of disciplinary practices valued by the field (i.e., reading across multiple source materials, discussion, and writing in the content area) and performancebased assessment" (p. 9). However, the finding from the study contradicts finding from Kanda and Kankam's [15] study which posited that "there was a weak positive relationship between the educational background of Social Studies teachers and the academic performance of their pupils" (p. 83).

Analysis and Discussion of Research Objective 2
Investigate how Social Studies teachers' knowledge of the subject matter affects the teaching of the subject in junior high school in Shama District. As shown in Table 2, most respondents agreed to the statement 'Understanding of concepts in Social Studies is needed to teach Social Studies effectively' with (M=3.58, SD= .667). This is followed by most respondents agreed to the statement 'Involvement of students in critical thinking and problem solving enhance their understanding in Social Studies' with (M=3.46, SD= .670). Also, most respondents agreed with the statement 'Knowledge on the content you teach in Social Studies could lead to the achievement of its objectives' with (M=3.43, SD= .667). Again, most respondents agreed with the statement 'Relating Social Studies lessons to real-life situations could lead to the effective achievement of its objectives' with (M=3.42, SD= .717). Finally, most respondents agreed with the statement 'Some of the topics in Social Studies are difficult to be taught in the teaching syllabus, example controversial issues' with (M=2.87, SD= .798).
The table further shows that most respondents disagreed with the statement 'Teaching of Social Studies does not call for any special approach such as step by step presentation of the lessons' with (M=1.87, SD= .861). This is followed by most respondents who disagreed with the statement 'Placing of emphases on an acquisition of knowledge, development of skills and societal values is not necessary for Social Studies teaching' with (M=1.88, SD= .838). Similarly, most respondents disagreed with the statement 'A teacher with rich knowledge in Social Studies is likely to be ineffective in the classroom' with (M=2.02, SD= .978).
From Table 2, it can be inferred that most teachers in the Shama district believe that teachers' knowledge of the subject matter positively influences the teaching of Social Studies at the junior high school level. The findings confirm the study finding from Blazar [7] who estimated "the relationship between domains of teaching practice captured by two observation instruments and the set of student outcomes" (p. iv). He further indicated that "student outcomes were predicted by teaching practices and most proximal to these measures are between teachers' math errors and students' math achievement, and between teachers' classroom organization and students' behaviour in class)" (p. iv). Likewise, Blazar and Kraft [6] supported this finding in their study that "upper-elementary teachers had large effects on self-reported measures of students' self-efficacy in math, and happiness and behaviour in class" (p. 146).

Conclusions
Based on the findings and the discussions made, the following conclusions were drawn: First and foremost, the study found out that majority (Mean of means=2.74, SD of SDs= .838) of teachers in the Shama district believe that teachers' academic and professional qualifications positively influence the teaching of Social Studies in junior high schools. It can be concluded that teachers believe that teachers' academic and professional qualifications positively influence the teaching of Social Studies in junior high schools.
Second, the study revealed that majority (Mean of means=2.69, SD of SDs= .780) of teachers in the Shama district believe that teachers' knowledge of the subject matter positively influences the teaching of Social Studies at the junior high school level. In conclusion to this finding, teachers believe that teachers' knowledge of the subject matter positively influences the teaching of Social Studies at the junior high school level. On this conclusion, teachers exhibited their knowledge in the subject matter by communicating the lesson's objective, involving pupils in problem-solving and critical thinking, assessing pupils in all the domains of teaching (affective, psychomotor, and cognitive), and relating the lesson to a real-life situation.

Recommendations
Considering the findings and the conclusions, the researchers postulate the following recommendations for the study: The researchers, therefore, recommend that teachers with academic and professional qualifications in Social Studies such as "Bachelor of Education in Social Studies", "Master of Education in Social Studies" or "Master of Philosophy in Social Studies", have deep awareness of the subject, teaching experience, and ability to deploy diverse teaching techniques and strategies should be allowed to teach Social Studies at the various basic school levels. This would support in eliminating or minimising the inexperience that has been exhibited by some Social Studies teachers in previous years.
The researchers recommend that the Ghana Education Service (GES) in collaboration with the National Council for Curriculum and Assessment (NaCCA) should keep strengthening the finding by taking a critical look at the assessment procedures in Social Studies by training teachers to design assessment instruments that would make the pupils develop not only their cognitive domain but also their affective and psychomotor domains.